Lexical and Lexico-Grammatical Means of Expressing Modality
Розміщено 27-04-10 у розділі Освіта.
The Diploma Paper “Lexical and Lexico-Grammatical Means of Expressing Modality” – дипломна робота про лексико-граматичні засоби вираження модальності в англійській мові. Робота подається частково. Вся робота у форматі .doc коштуватиме грошей :Р
CONTENTS
Introduction 3
Chapter I. Category of modality and means of its expression 7
1.1. Notion of modality and history of its study 7
1.2. Classification of means of expressing modality 10
Chapter II. Lexico-Grammatical means of expressing modality 14
2.1. Modal verbs and their meanings 14
2.2. Types of meanings denoted by the verb can 15
2.3. Types of meanings denoted by the verb may 20
2.4. Types of meanings denoted by the verb must 24
2.5. Types of meanings denoted by the verb shall 27
2.6. Types of meanings denoted by the verb will 31
2.7. Types of meanings denoted by the verb ought to 32
Chapter III. Lexical means of expressing modality 36
3.1. Modal words and their classification 36
3.2. B.B. Shuvalov’s classification 37
3.3. I.G. Rickman’s classification 41
Chapter IV. Minor means of expressing modality 46
Conclusions 51
Reference list 53
Resume 56
INTRODUCTION
Modality – is a multifold phenomenon, and therefore in the linguistic literature we can find different thoughts concerning the essence of this phenomenon.
Modality (from Latin modus – measure, method, shape) in different object domains is a category which characterizes modus operandi or an attitude toward the action.
Modality is a grammatico-semantic category, which expresses the speaker’s attitude towards the expression, his evaluation of the attitude input towards objective reality. As it is well known, it becomes traditional to divide modality into two types: objective modality and subjective modality.
Objective modality is an attitude of the expression towards reality (reality or unreality, possibility or impossibility, necessity or probability etc.).
Subjective modality is the expression of speaker’s attitude towards the utterance.
Objective or ontological modality is expressed at the level of syntactic sentence division. Grammatical means of expressing objective modality are Mood, different types of intonation and others.
Subjective modality is expressed at the level of logico-grammatical sentence division. Logico-grammatical level depends on the activity of the cognitive process, which is directed to one or another phenomenon of the reality. This subjective moment during any cognitive act appears particularly when the speaker evaluates degree of certainty of the idea about the reality. Evaluation of the degree of certainty of idea from the point of view of the subject of the idea at the level of logico-grammatical division receives its formal-grammatical expression. Means of expressing subjective modality are: word order, intonation (intonation which expresses pleasure, regret, doubt, surprise, certainty, uncertainty, irony, etc.), lexical repetitions, modal words and particles, interjections, parenthetic words and word combinations, parenthetic clauses.
Unlike objective modality, which reflects a character of the connections in the reality and because of this is a component part of a concrete content of the sentence, subjective modality is not a result of the reflection of reality. It reflects only the evaluation of the adequacy of this reflection, which is given by the subject of the idea, and denotes the degree of certainty of the content of the sentence from his point of view. Therefore, subjective modality is not a component of the concrete content of the sentence and it functions only as formal-grammatical meaning regardless of the fact whether it appears with the help of special morphemes or function words with modal meaning.
In this respect the matter stands differently with the objective modality. As formal-grammatical meaning it is presented in those cases, when it is expressed with the help of the formal-grammatical indicators, as for example Mood. When it is expressed through the modal verbs and words as it is necessary, it is possible etc., it is a component of the concrete content of the sentence.
The researchers note that objective modality is obligatory to any expression, thus subjective modality is facultative.
This statement is entirely true. Moreover, two types of modality are very different. For the events which are connected with the notion “objective modality” we can use a term “modality”, and for this what we name “subjective modality” we can use term ”emotiveness”.
Then we can distinguish 2 universal qualities of the expressions: modality and emotiveness. They will be opposed to each other on the basis of obligatoriness-facultativeness. Accepting this division we can define that modality is obligatory quality of an expression which lies in grammatically marked attitude of this expression towards the reality.
Observation of modality and emotiveness has terminological character, but we must point out that nomination of this or that phenomenon of the reality is of great importance, as it depends on clearness of realization of those features, which are typical for the given notion.
The aim of this paper is to describe the means of modality expression.
Taking into consideration that this theme is very interesting, and is not enough investigated, and means of expressing modality are very widespread, being an important aspect in learning the English language in its practical aspect, I decided to investigate the given theme.
The importance of the given paper is connected with extended usage of modal verbs as means of expressing modality in Modern English language. For this purpose a lot of examples are given from English fiction.
The main objective of the paper is study and systematization of the existing material concerning lexico-grammatical means of expressing modality in the English language, which, in its turn, is necessary for the facilitation and improvement of the results of the educational process, when dealing with topic “Modality and means of its expression”.
It is significant that in the given work the subjects of inquiry are modal verbs and modal words as means of expressing modality in Modern English language. For the investigation of the given work such methods as statistical and distributional are used.
Among the scholars who investigate modality we can mention Sh. Ballie –he was the first to define the category of modality in West-European linguistics. And in Russian linguistics the prominent role in researching the category of modality belongs to academician V.V. Vinogradov. He wrote a lot of books connected with this notion and means of its expression. A lot of works are based on his understanding of modality. Among the other scholars who also tried to describe the modality phenomenon are V.Z. Panfilov, G.A. Zolotova, L.S.Yermolaeva, G.V. Kolshanskiy and others.
CHAPTER I. CATEGORY OF MODALITY AND MEANS OF ITS EXPRESSION
1.1. Notion of modality and history of its study
Notion “modality” goes back to classical formal logic, from which linguistics borrows the classification of propositions into assertional (propositions of reality), problematical (propositions of possibility) and apodictical (propositions of necessity), and besides into reliable and probable propositions. Thereby in a general way was specified semantic notional sphere of modality.
In the practice of linguistic researches the limits of using the term “modality” lost their distinctness. The interpretation of modality is extraordinary broad in modern linguistics, besides it is very hard to find two authors, who would understand modality in the same way.
In West-European linguistics Sh.Ballie’s conception of modality was widely spread. In his opinion, in any utterance/expression we can single out basic content (dictum) and modal part (modus), in which is expressed intellectual, emotional and volitional consideration of the speaker concerning dictum. He distinguishes explicite and implicit modus. The main form of expression of the explicite modus is the main clause consisting of compound sentence with object clause. Thus, in Sh.Ballie’s interpretation modality is presented as syntactic category, in the expression of which the modal verbs play the main role.
German scholars follow this conception. The authors of academic edition, following Ballie, single out as modal the meanings of reality/unreality, possibility/impossibility, certainty/uncertainty (supposition, probability).
In Russian linguistics modality was also a subject of interest for many scholars. Here it is worth mentioning a prominent academician V.V Vinogradov. He was one of the first who gave very broad interpretation of the category of modality. His works, dedicated to the problem of modality, are very important for modern linguists.
V. V. Vinogradov first of all refers modality to “the fundamental structural characteristic of any sentence” and characterizes it as “the speaker’s evaluation of the relation of utterance content to the reality”[11; p.3].
As it is well known, V.V. Vinogradov wrote about Russian language, but his definition of modality is widely used in English studies, possibly because, as I.R. Galperin mentions, “… modern English grammars avoid giving the definition of this category, and when they deal with it, they limit themselves to the indication of the forms, in which the modality is realized”.
Another Russian scholar V. Z. Panfilov distinguishes two types of modal meanings: objective modality and subjective modality. In his opinion objective modality “reflects a character of objective connections, which take place in this or that situation, to which cognitive act refers, namely, a possible, real and necessary connections”. Subjective modality “expresses the evaluation of the degree of knowledge of these connections from the point of view of the speaker, they point out the credibility value of idea, which surrounds a particular situation” [12; p.39].
Some scholars emphasize other aspects of modality, not denying its evaluative character. G. A. Zolotova for example distinguishes 3 meanings of modality: 1/ an attitude of the person to the reality from the speaker’s point of view; 2/ speaker’s attitude to the content of the expression; 3/ agent’s attitude to the action [11; p.4].
L. S. Yermolaeva distinguishes two main modalities – “internal” and “external”. By the “internal” modality she understands an agent’s attitude to action performed; by the “external” modality – an attitude of the contents of the sentence to the reality [11; p.5].
In spite of differences in determination of the notion modality there are clashes of opinions on the categorical belonging of this notion. For example scholar R.A. Budagov speaks about modality as grammatical category [11; p.5]; L.S. Yermolaeva considers modality as syntactic category, mentioning that lexical means remain beyond the bounds of syntactic modality [11; p. 5]. Modality as semantic category is distinguished by V.V. Vinogradov, G.V. Kolshanskiy, I.B. Khlebnikova [11; p.5].
Russian scholar I.P. Krylova gives such a definition of modality : “Modality is a very wide category inherent in any sentence showing the relation between the action expressed by the predicate verb and reality. This relation is established by the speaker”[18; p.7].
Czech scholar Myroslav Grepl points out 3 aspects of modality: general (basic), voluntative modality and modality of truth (verity). General modality has a character of constitutive modality of the expression, so it is an important outline of every expression. As for voluntative modality and modality of truth, they have a character of non-constructive (facultative) modalities of the expression. They can, but not necessarily be realized in the expression. In case of realization they practically accumulate on the general modality, realized in the context [5; p.277].
English scholar F.R. Palmer notes that modality is concerned with our opinions and attitudes, and most linguists accept the existence of at least two types of modality, with one more type needed in order to account for the auxiliaries. Modal, then, refers to the formal properties of a certain class of words, while modality refers to the meanings of those words (and others).
One type of modality, epistemic (Greek episteme, meaning ‘knowledge’) is concerned with the speaker’s judgement of the truth of the proposition embedded in the statement.
e.g. They {should, ought to} be in Brussels by now.
The second primary category of modality is deontic modality. Deontic modality (Greek: deon, meaning ‘duty’) is concerned with “influencing actions, states, or events”; in other words, it is oriented towards performing speech acts – doing things with words.
e.g. They {should, ought to} leave at once.
In deontic modality, the speaker does something such as giving permission or advice. With epistemic modality, the speaker comments on the probability of the truth of the proposition, perhaps saying that he is certain that it is false (can’t) or that it is reasonable to assume that it is true (should)[20; p.7].
1.2. Classification of means of expressing modality
Different scholars give their own classifications of means of expressing modality.
Many authors such as V.V. Vinogradov, G.V. Kolshanskiy, I.B. Khlebnikova point out that modal content may be expressed with the help of different means of language, here belong: grammatical (Mood); lexical (modal words); lexico-grammatical (modal verbs) and intonation [11; p.5].
The founder of the English study in Russia professor B.A. Ilyish gave the following characteristic of ways of expressing modality: ”modality may be expressed in the sentence with the help of different means: modal words, modal verbs, sometimes just with the help of mere verbiage, intonation and finally with the help of Mood” [11; p.7]. In English language modality is transferred first of all with the help of all meanings and shades, which are expressed with the help of synthetic and analytical forms of Moods of the verbs. Combinations of modal verbs with the infinitive render the attitude of the subject of the action towards the action, capability, probability, permission, necessity of doing the action by the subject.
Different modal meanings are expressed with the help of intonation means. Practice of speech communication testifies to the infallible perception of different shades of modality at the perceptual level. But, in the special literature there is no sufficient determination, at the expense of which intonation means such differences are created. The question about the interaction of different verbal and non-verbal means of modal meanings expression is not learnt enough.
According to A.V. Bondarko there are 6 types of meaning, which have different (grammatical, lexical, intonation) means of expressing.
- Speaker’s evaluation of the content of the utterance from the point of view of reality/unreality, which is expressed with the help of forms of Mood and Tense of the verb, and also some conjunctions, particles and other elements of the sentence structure.
- Expressing with the help of modal verbs and other modal words the evaluation of the situation in the utterance from the point of view of its possibility, necessity and desirability.
- Speaker’s evaluation of his certainty in the reliability of what is informed, which may be expressed with the help of modal adverbs, parenthetic words, and also with the help of compound sentences.
- The aim of the speaker or communicative function of the utterance. On this basis all sentences are subdivided into statements (which express information), interrogative sentences (which express a question), and optative sentences (which express desire). Means of expressing these meanings are different: morphological (Mood of the verb), syntactic (structure of the sentence), prosodic (intonation).
- Meanings of affirmation/denial, which reflect presence/absence of objective connection between the objects, features, events, about which the sentence informs. First member of the opposition (affirmation) isn’t marked, the second – is marked with the help of grammatical, word-forming and lexical means.
- Emotional and qualitative evaluation of the content of the utterance, which is expressed lexically, prosodically (with the help of exclamatory sentences), and also with the help of interjections [2; p.67].
Scholar I.P. Krylova thinks that the main means of expressing modality is the mood of the verb. Thus in English we find the Indicative Mood representing an action as a fact (it may be called the fact-mood), the Imperative Mood urging the person addressed to perform an action and different forms of expressing unreality (the Subjunctive Mood and the Oblique Moods). She also mentions in her book the other means of modality – lexical means, namely modal verbs and modal words [18; p.7].
According to G.V. Kolshanskiy modality is expressed with the help of grammatical means (morphological), lexical means (modal words, modal verbs) and intonation means [9; p.97].
Regarding the functional range of modality much broader, modality is expressed by phonetic means (intonation) [11; p. 7], grammatical (verbal forms, moods, word order etc.), lexical (word-combinations and phrases), and lexico-grammatical (modal verbs, modal words and modal particles) [17; p. 7-8: 13; p. 3]. These means aren’t isolated in the context of the speech, but are in the difficult relationship [13; p. 3].
Теги: in English, дипломні
